JOHN HUNYADI: Hungary in American History Textbooks

V. Perry

As its subtitle states, this book stresses the 'ideas, politics, and society' of western civilization: broad concepts, cultural, social, political developments are explained in detail. Historical facts are presented only when required to buttress these concepts. As a result, Hungary is hardly mentioned between the entrance of the Magyars into the Carpathian basin in 896 and the siege of Vienna in 1683. On the other hand, Magyars are featured prominently as the nineteenth century's nationalistic movements are discussed, mostly as the villains.

[180] On Mongol invasions: "After the death of Genghis Khan, some Mongol forces swept across Russia and threatened Central Europe[80]; others..."

[190] "The Magyars, originally from western Asia and linguistically related to Finns and Turks, crossed the Carpathian Mountains in the ninth century and established themselves on the plains of the Danube; their horsemen launched lightning raids into northern Italy, western Germany, and parts of France. Defeated in Germany in 933 and 955, the Magyars withdrew to what is now Hungary; they ceased their raids and adopted Christianity."

[191] Maps entitled "Ninth-Century Invasions" depicts Viking, Magyar, and Muslim invasion routes in Europe.

[195] Chronological table shows "c. 890 Magyars invade central Europe."

[214] During the Peasants Crusade ..."While Peter's (the Hermit) army made it's way to Constantinople, another army of commoners recruited in Germany began their crusade by massacring the Jews of the Rhineland despite the efforts of bishops to protect them. Unlike Peter's army, these commoners never reached Constantinople; after plundering Hungary, they were slaughtered by Hungarians (Magyars)."

[295] Map showing religious affiliations after the Reformation correctly shows Reformed pockets in Transylvania and Hungary, but Austria's label is shifted over western Hungary.

[362] "As a result of the settlement at Westphalia, the Austrian Hapsburgs gained firm control over Hungary and Bohemia,..."

"A Catholic and unified Austrian army, composed of a variety of peoples from that kingdom and assisted by the Poles, managed to defeat the Turks and recapture the whole of Hungary and Transylvania and part of Croatia. Austria's right to govern these was firmly accepted by the Turks at the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699).[81]

[407] On map the legend "Austria" is placed over the Carpathian mountains. The correct label would be "The Hapsburg Empire".

[409] During the reign of Maria Theresa: ..."Frustrated in their German territories, the Austrian Hapsburgs concentrated their attention increasingly on their eastern states. Vienna gave them a natural power base, while Catholic religiosity gradually united the ruling elites in Bohemia and Hungary with their Hapsburg kings."

[497] In the early 19th century ..."Liberals called for the unification of Germany," ... "and the granting of autonomy to the Hungarians of the Austrian Empire."

[502] "Metternich also feared the new spirit of nationalism. As a multinational empire, Austria was particularly vulnerable to nationalist unrest. If its ethnic groups - Poles, Czechs, Magyars, Italians, South Slavs, Rumanians - became infected with the nationalist virus, they would shatter the Hapsburg Empire."

[504] Map shows "Peoples of the Hapsburg Monarchy, 1815" does not indicate population density and ethnic mixing.

[518] In 1848 ..."revolts in other parts of the empire -Bohemia, Hungary, and northern Italy - added to the distress of the monarchy."

[519] ..."the most serious threat to the Hapsburg realm came from the Magyars in Hungary. Some 12 million people lived in Hungary, 5 million of them were Magyars. The other nationalities consisted of South Slavs (Croats and Serbs) and Rumanians. The upper class were chiefly Magyar landowners, who enjoyed tax exemptions and other feudal privileges. Drawn to liberal and modern ideas and fearful of peasant uprisings, some Hungarian nobles pressed for an end to serfdom and the tax exemptions of the nobility. Louis Kossuth (1802 - 1894), a member of the lower nobility, called for both social reform and a deepening of national consciousness. The great landowners, determined to retain their ancient privileges, resisted liberalization.

Led by Louis Kossuth, the Magyars demanded local autonomy for Hungary. Hungary would remain within the Hapsburg Empire, but would have its own constitution and national army and would control its own finances. The Hungarian leadership introduced liberal reforms - suffrage for all males who could speak Magyar and owned some property, freedom of religion, freedom of the press, the termination of serfdom, and the end of the privileges of nobles and church. Within a few weeks, the Hungarian parliament changed Hungary from a feudal to a modern liberal state.

But the Hungarian leaders' nationalist dreams towered above their liberal ideas. The Magyars intended to incorporate lands inhabited by Serbs, Slovaks, and Rumanians into their kingdom[82] and transform these people, whom they regarded as ethnic inferiors, into Hungarians. As `Scotus Viator', R. W. Seton-Watson has written,

Kossuth and his friends genuinely believed that they were doing the non-Hungarians a kindness by giving them a chance of becoming absorbed in the superior Hungarian culture. To refuse this kindness was nationalist fanaticism; to impose it by force was to promote progress. The suggestion that Romanians, Slovaks, or Serbs were nations, with a national culture of their own, was simply ridiculous nonsense {Ref.: S.-W.: Nations and States, Westview Press, 1977}

In the spring of 1849, the Hungarians renounced their allegiance to the Hapsburgs and proclaimed Hungary an independent state with Kossuth as president.

The Hapsburg rulers took advantage of the ethnic animosities inside and outside Hungary. They encouraged Rumanians and South Slavs to resist the new Hungarian government.[83] When Hapsburg forces moved against the Magyars, they were joined by an army of South Slavs, whose nationalist aspirations had been flouted by the Hungarians.[84] The recently ascended Hapsburg emperor, Francis Joseph, also appealed to tsar Nicholas for help.[85] The tsar complied, fearing that a successful revolt by the Hungarians might lead the Poles to rise up against their Russian overlords. The Hungarians fought with extraordinary courage but were overcome by superior might. Kossuth and other rebel leaders went into exile; about one hundred rebel leaders were executed. Thus, through division and alliance, the Hapsburgs prevented the disintegration of the empire."

[520] In an assessment: "Hungarian revolutionaries dismissed the nationalist yearnings of South Slavs and Rumanians living in Hungary, who in turn helped the Hapsburg dynasty to extinguish the nascent Hungarian state."[86]

[521] In the chronological table: "August 1849 -- The Hungarians' bid for independence is crushed by the Hapsburg forces, aided by Russian troops[87]."

[557] "In the first half of the nineteenth century, the Germans, constituting less then one-quarter of the population, were the dominant national group in the empire. But Magyars, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Rumanians, Ruthenians, and Italians were experiencing national self-awareness.

Poets and writers ... began to write in their mother tongues and extol their splendor. ..."

[558] "Magyarization"

...The defeat by Prussia also forced the Hapsburg monarchy to make concessions to the Magyars, the strongest of the non-German nationalities; for without a loyal Hungary, the Hapsburg monarchy could suffer other humiliations. The Settlement of 1867 split the Hapsburg territories into Austria and Hungary. The two countries retained a common ruler, Francis Joseph (1848 - 1916), who was emperor of Austria and king of Hungary. Hungary gained complete control over its internal affairs - the administration of justice and education. Foreign and military affairs and common financial concerns were conducted by a ministry consisting of delegates from both lands."

... "The other nationalities felt that the German - Magyar political, economic, and cultural domination blocked their own national aspirations. nationality struggles in the half century following the settlement of 1867 consumed the energies of the Austrians and Hungarians."

"The nationality problems in Hungary differed substantially from those in Austria. Constituting slightly less then half the population of Hungary,[88] the Magyars were determined to retain their hegemony over the other minorities - Rumanians, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Serbs, Croats, and Jews. In the first phase of the national struggle, the Hungarians also sought to liberate their nation from German domination. In the second phase, after 1867, the landholding aristocracy that ruled Hungary tried to impose the Magyar language and traditions on the other nationalities. Non-Magyars who learned the magyar language and considered themselves Hungarians could participate as equals in Hungarian society.[89] Those who resisted were viewed as traitors and conspirators and faced severe penalties. Non-Magyars were largely excluded from voting and virtually barred from government jobs, which were reserved for Magyars and those who had adopted Magyar language and culture."

"The government tightly controlled the non-Magyar peoples. It suppressed their cultural organizations and newspapers, and the great majority of public schools, even in predominantly non-Magyar regions, carried on instruction largely in Magyar.[90] Because of limited suffrage, the manipulation of districts, and threats of violence, non-Magyars were barely represented in the Hungarian parliament.[91] Protests by the nationalities against this forced Magyarization often led to jail sentences. The repressive measures strengthened the Slavs' and Rumanians' hatred of the regime. At the same time, however, Magyarization brought economic and cultural opportunities. Jews in particular accepted the Magyar government and took advantage of what it offered."[92]

"But nationality movements within Hungary constituted less of a threat to the preservation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire than Magyar nationalism itself did. The Independence party, whose influence grew after 1900, began to demand a complete end to the link with Austria and the 'cursed common institutions'."

[572] "The emergence and concentration of heavy industry in large firms" ... "characterized the post-1890 period all over Europe. This tendency was marked in Austria-Hungary, ..." In Austria-Hungary one or two giant entrepreneurs dominated steel, mines, and munitions..."

[592] "Meanwhile, throughout the period from 1867 to the outbreak of World War I, Hungary moved toward greater centralization, demanding more room for independent action. The hottest issue revolved around the army, where the Magyars insisted on separate Magyar regiments with Magyar, rather than German, as the language of command. The emperor insisted on a unified army and refused to accept the Magyar demands. The Magyars finally relented, but not until legislative debate on the issue had nearly ended in violence."[93]

"In the decade immediately before the outbreak of World War I ... In Hungary, oppressed peasantry, usually Slavs, challenged all powerful Magyar landlords whose great wealth was based on export agriculture."

[595] On Austria-Hungary, 1866 - 1914: ...In Hungary a large percentage of the population worked in agriculture. About 30 percent of the urban population were independent artisans who did not hire any laborers; another 30 percent were employed in small workshops of not more than twenty workers, and usually fewer than ten.

The European-wide tendency toward heavy industry concentration in large firms, which characterized the 1890s, was exaggerated in the underdeveloped states, such as Austria-Hungary." ...

"In Hungary, the entrepreneurial and business classes were even less respected than they were in Austria, a reflection of the backward state of Hungary's industrial development. The dominant magyar landed magnates and gentry cared so little for commerce and industry that the field was left to non-Magyar subjects, in particular, Austrian Germans, Czechs, and Jews. Non-Magyars were constrained from political activity, but economic development was almost totally in their hands. In this instance, the minorities benefited greatly from Magyar prejudices."[94]

[658] "Aggravated Nationalist Tensions in Austria - Hungary" ... "a young terrorist ... murdered Archduke Francis Ferdinand" ... "And nowhere were conditions more volatile than in Austria - Hungary, the scene of the assassination."

"With its numerous nationalities, each with its own national history and traditions and often conflicting aspirations, Austria - Hungary stood in opposition of nationalism, the most powerful spiritual force of the age. Perhaps the supranational Austro-Hungarian Empire was obsolete in a world of states based on the principle of nationality. Dominated by Germans and Hungarians, the empire remained unable either to satisfy the grievances or to contain the nationalistic aims of its minorities, particularly the Czechs and South Slavs (Croats, Slovenes, Serbs.)."

"Austria - Hungary's failure to solve its minority problems had significant repercussions for international relations. The more moderate leaders of the ethnic minorities did not call for the secession from the empire. Nevertheless, heightened agitation among the several nationalities, which worsened in the decade before 1914, created terrible anxieties among Austrian leaders. " ...

[659] Another irritant to Austria - Hungary was Russian Pan-Slavism, ..."

... "Moreover, their provocative and semireligious proclamations frightened Austria - Hungary, which did not draw a sharp line between Pan-Slavic aspirations and official Russian policy."

The tensions arising out of the multinational character of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in an age of heightened nationalist feeling set off the explosion in 1914. Unable to solve its minority problems and fearful of Pan-Slavism and Pan-Serbism, Austria - Hungary felt itself in a life-or-death situation."

[660] "Bismarck also hoped to prevent a war between Russia and Austria - Hungary, for such a conflict could lead to German involvement, and to Russian expansion in eastern Europe. To maintain peace ... [he] created the Triple Alliance -consisting of Germany, Austria - Hungary, and Italy -"

[664] In the Balkan wars ... "Thus, during a five-year period, Austria - Hungary inflicted on Serbia two terrible humiliations. Russia shared these humiliations, for it had twice failed to help its small Slavic friend..."

"Archduke Francis Ferdinand 91863 -1914) ... was sympathetic to the grievances of the South Slavs and favored a policy that would place the Slavs on equal footing with Hungarians and Germans within the Hapsburg Empire." ... assassination described.

[666] Throughout the page, Austria - Hungary is referred to as "Austria".

[684] "In separate treaties the conference dealt with the dissolution of the Hapsburg Empire. In the closing weeks of the war, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had crumbled as the various nationalities proclaimed their independence from Hapsburg rule. In most cases, the peacemakers ratified with treaties what the nationalities had already accomplished in fact. Serbia joined with Austrian lands inhabited by Croats and Slovenes to become Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia arose from the predominantly Czech and Slovak regions of Austria.[95] Hungary, which broke away from Austria to become a separate country, had to concede[96] considerable land to Rumania and Yugoslavia."[97]

[739] "The new Hungary that emerged at the end of World War I faced an uprising by communists inspired by the success of the Bolsheviks in Russia. Béla Kun (1885 - 1937), supported by Russian money, established a Soviet regime in Budapest in March 1919. But Kun could not win the support of the peasants and was opposed by the Allies, who helped Rumania crush the revolutionary government. In 1920, power passed to Admiral Miklós Horthy (1868 - 1957), who instituted a brief white terror that exceeded the red terror of the Kun regime.[98]

During the Great Depression, the Horthy government, which favored the large landholders, was challenged by the radical right, which preached extreme nationalism, anti-Semitism, and anticapitalism and sought to win mass support through land reform. Its leader, Gyula Gömbös (1886 - 1936), who served as prime minister from 1932 to 1936, sought to align Hungary with Nazi Germany. Seeking to regain territories lost in World War I[99] and aware of Hitler's growing might, Hungary drew closer to Germany in the late 1930s."[100]

[787] After W W II ... " Millions of Germans fled or were forced out of Prussia and regions of Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Yugoslavia, and Hungary, places were their ancestors had lived for centuries."

[810] "Poland was on the brink of rebellion by 1956; a workers' uprising forced a change of leadership. In Hungary in 1956, the entire communist regime was overthrown before the red Army reoccupied the country."

[817] "Although the 'Polish October' ended peacefully, events moved to a brutal showdown in Hungary. The Stalinists had suppressed national pride in Hungary for too long. On October 20,[101] 1956, an uprising in Budapest raised anti-Soviet feeling to a fever pitch and forced Soviet troops to withdraw from the country. Next, a moderate communist government, eager to capture popular sentiment, called for Western-style political democracy and Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. Thoroughly alarmed, and with the backing of Mao and even Tito, the Soviet leaders struck back. On November 4, 1956, Soviet troops re-entered the country and crushed all opposition. Yet the bold uprising had left its mark."

"The new communist leader of Hungary, János Kádár (b. 1912) was a moderate, who with Khrushchev's approval built a pragmatic regime of consumer-oriented "goulash communism" that granted considerable opportunity to private enterprise. Kádár's regime also allowed noncommunists to participate extensively in public affairs. Relaxation and decentralization of planning made possible in the 1970s a remarkable increase in popular prosperity[102] and individual freedom; the Hungarian experiment became the envy of all other Soviet-bloc countries and invited imitation even in the Soviet Union itself. In return for this moderate self-determination, the Hungarians resumed their membership in the Warsaw Pact and demonstrated loyalty to the Soviet leadership. In its essentials the Kádár regime has lasted even beyond Kádár's retirement in 1988."

JOHN HUNYADI: Hungary in American History Textbooks