COUNT JANOS ESTERHAZY |
i
Preface by The Rev. Christopher Hites ix
Slovak and Hungarian Views about the Origins of the Slovak People 12
The Awakening and Growth of Slovak National Consciousness 16
Slovak Grievances Against Hungary 19
The Concept of "Czechoslovakism" and the Creation
of the Artificial Czechoslovak State 22
The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Trianon 36
The Slovaks Begin Their Efforts for Autonomy 39
The Struggle of National Minorities in
Czechoslovakia Their Rights 46
The Western Powers Become Involved in the
Problem of Czechoslovakia's National 51
The Meetings at Berchslesgaden and Godesberg
as Preludes to the Munich Conference 55
The Munich Four Power Conference and Its Consequences 58
Hungarian-Crechoslovak Negotiations
in Komarom (Komarno) 60
Slovakia Declares Its Independence 68
C. Up to 1945, when Slovakia lost its independence 70
Bohemia Becomes A German Protectorate 70
Further Political Machinations of Benes 72
The "Slovak National Uprising" 74
Benes Returns under the Protection of the Soviet Army 74
The Constitutions of 1948, 1960 and 1968 76
B. From the period of 1918-1920 to March1939 97
ii
French plans for the Danubian Basin:
economic union, followed by conferation 100
Some Revisionist Notions of Masaryk and Benes 102
Protection of Minority Rights and
Their Systematic Violation 104
The Formation of Hungarian Minority Parties
in Czechoslovakia 109
Janos Esterhazy, the New National Chairman of the
Hungarian Christian Socialist Party 112
The Sudeten German Party Comes to the Fore 120
Janos Esterhazy Meets Benes 121
The Occupation of the Rhineland 124
The Merger of the Two Hungarian Parties 127
Benes Extends Another Invitation to Janos Esterhazy 130
Janos Esterhazy's Speeches in the Budget Debate 134
Diplomatic Negotiations between Hungary
and the Little Entente 136
Leading Hungarian Politicians Visit Germany 140
Esterhazy's Response in Parliament to Hodza's Speech 142
The Sudeten German Party Sends a Delegation to Hlinka,
then to Budapest 147
The United Hungarian Party's Appeal
to the Hungarians of Slovakia 148
The Sudeten Germans' Eight Points in Karlsbad 150
The Pragai Magyar Hirlap Sums up the Hungarian Demands... 151
British-French Diplomatic Moves
Regarding the Sudeten German Question 153
The Secret Talks between Hungary and the Little Entente Continue 157
Large Scale Hungarian Diplomatic Activity:
Esterhazy in Warsaw 163
Prague Publishes the Nationalities Act
in a Piecemeal Fashion 165
Negotiations by Lord Runciman 167
Hungary and the Little Entente Meet in Bled,
Hungarian Statesmen Visit Kiel 170
The Sudeten German Party Rejects
Hodza's Plans for the National Minorities 175
iii
Lord Runciman's Final Report Highlights
the Prague Government's Faulty Policies 179
Hitler and Chamberlain Meet
in Berchtesgaden and Godesberg 183
The Road to the Munich Agreement
and the Vienna Decision 193
The Vienna Decision and the International Law 200
The Period Following the Vienna Decision 205
The Declaration of Slovakia's Independence 209
The Magyar Nemzet Newspaper Hails Esterhazy 212
The Return of Subearpathian Ruthenia 215
Slovak Incitements against the Hungarians 218
The Rapidly Changing International Scene 226
Hungary Loses Its Independence 230
D. The Period since 1945
The Life and Struggles of the Hungarians
in Slovakia between 1940 and 1945 232
The Hungarians Face New Threats in Slovakia 241
The Persecution of Janos Esterhazy 243
The Kassa Program and Its Impact
on the Hungarians in Slovakia 246
The Paris Peace Conference 248
Janos Esterhazy Sentenced to Death 251
In Remembrance of Janos Esterhazy,
the Politician, the Hungarian, the Man 259
Conclusion 262
Bibliography 288
Documents 288
Monographs 290
iv
Monographs in Serials - Articles in Periodicals 296
Periodicals, Newspapers and Yearbooks 298
Abbreviations 299
v
PLEASE NOTE:
THE PHOTOGRAPS AND MAPS ON PAGES IV TO XII ARE NOT SHOWN.
PLACE NAMES:
Slovakian name: | Hungarian name: |
Banska Bystrica | Besztercebanya |
Bratislava | Pozsony |
Komarno | Komarom |
Kosice | Kassa |
Nitra | Nyitra |
Nove Zamky | Ersekujvar |
Roznava | Rozsnyo |
Trencin | Trencsen |
Zilina | Zsolna |
xii
Dr. Szent-Ivany's book fills a huge gap heretofore overlooked in the historical
and political literature that deals with the years from the end of the First
World War until the conclusion of World War Two. The work was written about a
man who did not play an important role in the politics of Europe during that
period, and yet his activity in the narrow field of history presents an ideal
model and moral example for leading politicians. Had those who shaped the
course of events in those fateful times been guided by such ideals, tragic
developments in Europe could have been avoided.
Today it is generally acknowledged that the statesmen who controlled world
events during those years acted without a clear vision of the actual problems
of Europe. They seem to have been guided more by hostility and selfish
interests than by a sincere desire to bring true and just peace to this
all-important area of the world. They cannot be excused the tragic consequences
of their politics that led to mounting international tension and fear, instead
of true peace. Now, as Europe slowly emerges from the adverse results of their
misconceived policies, it seems to be opportune to investigate the life of a
relatively minor figure of that time, who had nevertheless stood for high moral
standards among the leading actors of contemporary history.
Janos Esterhazy was such a leader. He devoted his life to the ill-fated cause
of one million Hungarians who had been cut off from their mother community by
the dictates of the Treaty of Trianon. For one thousand years, their homeland
belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary until this infamous treaty, imposed on them
against their will, made them part of the newly created state of
Czechoslovakia. Esterhazy was the defender of their basic human and civic
rights and fought for their interests.
Following the disintegration of Benes' Czechoslovakia when the Slovaks broke
away from their Czech partners, Esterhazy faithfully
xiii
continued in that role on behalf of that smaller group of Hungarians who were
left behind in Tiso's Slovakia. As a member of the Slovak parliament, true to
his Christian statesmanship, Esterhazy singlehandedly fought Hitler's order to
deport the Jews, as well as other manifestations of the Nazi influence
penetrating the small Slovak Republic which came into being under Hitler's
sponsorship.
At the end of World War Two, the corrupt political course of the victors made
Esterhazy a martyr for his Christian political ideals. He was exiled to the
Soviet Union for three years before being handed over to his Czechoslovak
political opponents. He died in their prison, faithful to the end to his people
and to the ideals by which he served his people all his life.
It is rewarding to read the story of Janos Esterhazy's life, presented here so
authoritatively by Dr. Gabor Szent-Ivany.
The Reverend Christopher Hites
Portola Valley, California October, 1989
xiv
I often visit the Highlands *1 in my dreams. Most of the time I go to the
region where I was born, to Besztercebanya (Banska Bystrica), considered one of
the most beautiful cities of the Highlands.
Human nature is wonderful. Many of the very first impressions of life, of the
world itself, stay with us through our entire lives. Instead of diminishing
with time, the intensity of these impressions just keeps increasing. We turn to
the memory of these impressions to explain facts and events which could not be
explained by the cool, somber logic of the mind.
How does a child who steps out for the first time from the warm environment of
his family home become acquainted with the world, with humanity around him?
First and above all, through his playmates. Whether he wants it or not, those
initial experiences and impressions will stay with him through the rest of his
life.
That is how I feel about the very first impressions of my own tender childhood.
I couldn't count the number of times my memory has recalled one sharp image
after another from that period. I can see myself and my little friends --
mostly young Slovak children -- running around accompanied by our carefree
laughter, or chasing the baby ducklings to the water. We express our feelings,
our childish thoughts in the Slovak language, no matter how primitive or clumsy
that may be. This is not surprising at all. After all, I picked up quite a few
words from my mother who spoke the Slovak language fluently for all 92 years of
her life. The rest of it I learned from my young playmates.
My mother told me that in her childhood she, too, had Slovak girlfriends. Her
name was Maria and the little girls gave her the nickname Marcsulka. She also
recalled that the girls would often come to her gate and called out 'Maysuyka
sisi Bisisi?" These three Slovak words, spoken in baby language, meant "Are you
in Beszterce, Maresulka?" Because it often happened that she had to ride with
her
1
parents to the countryside. Her father was chief physician in the hospital and
also served as a public health doctor which required frequent trips out of
town.
These warm, affectionate relationships accompanied my mother into her
adulthood.
My own impressions from my earliest youth have also stayed with me. I can state
in good conscience that those impressions have not had the slightest trace of
animosity towards the Slovak people. On the contrary, I have the same affection
and warm feelings toward them today as I had in my childhood. A child has a
very' sensitive soul. He registers many things better than an adult would. To
be absolutely candid, my first strong resentment arose not against the Slovaks
-- I remember it all too well -- but against the Czechs. It occurred in 1919
and 1920 when the events forced us to leave our native land quite suddenly.
When the Czech colonel didn't even wait for us to pack our belongings, he was
in such a hurry to have his trunks moved into our house. When we didn't even
have time to say Good-bye to our Slovak friends. It's not necessary to explain
these things to a child. He senses what's wrong. But I was able to separate my
resentment towards the Czechs from my friendly feelings towards the Slovaks. I
knew that living in boxcars, the entire refugee existence, was not the fault of
the Slovaks. The Czech politicians of that fateful period were to blame for it,
just as it had been explained to us.
Only much later, in the late 1930s did I learn of the hatred of certain Slovak
leaders towards Hungarians. Then, after 1945, came the ruthless persecution of
the Hungarians by the Slovaks,which could be compared only to the persecution
of the Jews. This was totally inexplicable, completely beyond understanding. We
tried with my friends and acquaintances from various regions of the Highlands
to discuss the whole issue, searching for an explanation. We agreed that none
of us has experienced within his own circle any trace of hatred between
Hungarians and Slovaks. We couldn't fully agree about what might have triggered
the persecution of the Hungarians. Different people placed the emphasis on
various possible causes.
I've always been bothered by this question. I've read a great deal, much has
become clear to me, but that great turnaround remains inexplicable. Perhaps
because I remain convinced to this day that there has never been any natural
basis for hatred between Hungarians and Slovaks. Through centuries of living
side-by-side, there developed a certain kinship in the soul of the two nations,
a kinship
2
which has undergone a spontaneous, natural growth with the passage of time.
A number of explanations could be found for this phenomenon. Two people, the
Hungarians and the Slovaks, have always stood closest to each other in this
region of the Carpathian Basin. Neither has been attracted by neighboring
nations to the extent as, for example, German and Rumanian minorities have been
drawn to nearby Germany and Rumania. Up until the 19th century, the ancestors
of today's Slovaks have been drawn to the Czechs more by cultural sympathies
than by any political or other attraction. Political attraction became
noticeable only in the wake of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the
failure of the negotiations for an Austro-Czech Compromise in 1871. It was also
promoted by the success of Hungarian efforts for political reform in the 1840s,
making Hungarian the official language, which hurt Slovak sensitivities.
Shared fate has been perhaps the most important factor in nearly 1,000 years of
peaceful coexistence. The Carpathian Basin occupies a key position in Europe
and its possession is a precondition to the success of any imperial aspirations
from all directions. Finding themselves in this key position, the Hungarian and
Slovak nations have fought and bled together against great power incursions,
whether they came from the East or West. Only thus were they able to survive
Invasions by the Mongols and the Ottoman Turks, followed by the Austrian
oppression and the bloody freedom fights to shake it off. Common fate brought
the two peoples ever closer together. We find ample evidence of this in the
poetry of both nations.
Peaceful coexistence was also fostered by the natural process of gradual
assimilation on both sides. Large numbers of Hungarians became Slovak and, by
the same token, many Slovaks became Hungarian. This was an inevitable result of
centuries of coexistence.
It is also possible that both nations have been aware in their subconscious
that the defeat of Svatopluk's *2 Moravian empire by the conquering
Hungarians in the late 10th century' assured the survival of the ancestors of
today's Slovaks. The population of Prince Pribinas' *3 realm, which was
ethnically different from Svatopluk's Moravians would not have survived, even
though Pribina had been driven away by the Moravians. Today, there would be
only a Czech-Moravian tongue, the Slovak language would not exist. This
circumstance, too, helped create the conditions which made possible the future
development of the Slovak nation.
3
It is not the purpose of this essay to shed scholarly light on the players who
had been motivated exclusively by selfish interests in their efforts to destroy
this traditionally good relationship. We might name, first of all, the Hapsburg
Dynasty which had been inciting the other nationalities against the Hungarians
in order to weaken the Hungarian nation. We might also name the Czechs who knew
that they could not realize their imperial ambitions without the Slovaks. Those
are the roots of the Czechs' answer to the Slovaks when they demanded the
autonomy promised by Masaryk *4 in the Pittsburgh Agreement of 1918. The
Czechs refused to carry out this pledge, claiming that autonomy would weaken
the Slovaks against the Hungarians who were allegedly anticipating such an
opportunity. Under the reign of Benes *5 (1918-1938) the Slovaks were unable to
achieve the autonomy promised in the treaty signed by Thomas Masaryk.
The results of the Czech incitement against the Hungarians became increasingly
apparent. Eventually the Slovaks, too, learned what the empty promises of
Benes's policies were worth and where they were to lead ultimately. The
Slovaks, too, found themselves driven onto the same road of bitter
disappointments as the Hungarians did, a road which carried them into
subjugation by Hitler's Germany or Stalin's Soviet Union. The great powers knew
how to skillfully manipulate and take advantage for their own political ends of
the burning afflictions which should have been assuaged by the Benes
administration -- something that both the Slovak and Hungarian peoples have
been awaiting for over twenty years in vain.
Benes' policies were even more unwielding toward the Hungarians who became a
national minority in the new state of Czechoslovakia created by the Treaty of
Trianon in 1920. He did not show the slightest inclination to negotiate
seriously about the just complaints and even the most minimal demands of the
Hungarians. Only much later, during his election campaign, did Benes summon
Janos Esterhazy, the representative of the Hungarians, to ask for his support.
The promises he made in return for that support proved to meaningless once
again.
The Hungarian revisionist efforts were cited most frequently as an excuse for
the refusal of any rapprochement, even though the Czechs knew very well that
all rational Hungarians were looking for a peaceful settlement of their
so-called revisionist demands. History might have taken a different turn if
instead of refusing to negotiate, the Czech would have made at least an attempt
to follow the approach taken by Milan Hodza, an envoy of the Czechoslovak
government,
4
during his talks in Budapest in 1918. Benes immediately rejected Hodza's
approach because he appeared to be willing to make certain sensible
concessions.
We will show how the Hungarians have sought to assuage their grievances with a
moderation and patience which repeatedly earned the respect of Western
statesmen. We will offer ample documentation in support of this assertion.
Unfortunately, this moderate approach failed to secure the support of the
Western powers and only the forcible intervention of Germany and the Soviet
Union brought about a solution for the grievances. To a certain degree, the
Slovaks had a similar experience. And so did other national minorities, such as
the Sudeten Germans, Poles and Ruthenians. Twenty years of fighting the
political windmills had finally swept these abandoned peoples into the orbit of
Nazi Germany.
Hitler had his well defined global political goals and he was not choosy in the
methods employed to meet those goals. He took turns in making promises both to
the Slovaks and the Hungarians, even though he knew all too well that the
promised support was often contrary to the interests of those peoples. He tried
to seduce them into various risky ventures, holding up as a reward the hope of
helping them fulfill their national aspirations.
We shall see how Hitler kept promising the entire Slovakia to Hungarian
statesmen in return for active participation in an armed attack on
Czechoslovakia. From the moment the Hungarians refused to go along, the
sympathies of Hitler and the entire German leadership turned against Foreign
Minister Kalman Kanya and several other Hungarian politicians.
It is also well known that in his talks with the Slovak leaders, Hitler painted
a grossly distorted and magnified picture of the Hungarian threat against their
state. He reminded Father Joseph Tiso *6 of this alleged threat whenever he
wanted to persuade to Slovak leader to do his bidding. The tension created
between Hungary' and Slovakia by the first Vienna Decision of 1938, which
returned parts of Slovakia to Hungary', was a tactical goal of the Germans. By
playing off the two countries against each other, Hitler was better able to
keep both of them off balance.
Hitler followed the same policy in his relationship with Rumania. It is well
known that the second Vienna Decision of 1940, which returned parts of
Transylvania to Hungary, was unsatisfactory both for Hungary and Rumania.
Hitler took advantage of this situation for the furthering of his plans. He
told Hungary that he would
5
defend its territorial growth, he even raised the possibility of further
territorial gains. At the same time, he kept encouraging Rumania's hopes for
the return of territories lost to the Soviet Union.
Hitler's Rumanian policy became the most obvious at the time when Rumanian
Marshal Ion Antonescu was going out of his way to become Hitler's most faithful
satellite. Even though that had cost Rumania immense military casualties on the
Russian front, it gave Antonescu the opportunity, which he never missed, to
keep reminding Hitler of Hungary's less than enthusiastic military'
participation in the war effort. On March 23, 1944, Hitler informed Antonescu
that he no longer considered it necessary to continue guaranteeing the Vienna
Decision, in part because of Hungary's disloyal behavior and also because Italy
had ended its participation in the war. It is a historical irony that even
though Antonescu reassured Hitler at their last meeting on August 5, 1944, that
Rumania would be the last to betray him, three weeks later Rumania, too, quit
the war.
These times and events, if nothing else, should teach these peoples who are so
dependent on each other of the fate they can expect if they allow themselves to
become the mere toys of foreign powers. More of that when we discuss the life
and work of Janos Esterhazy.
We wish to emphasize that in order to understand the accomplishments of Janos
Esterhazy it is absolutely necessary to describe his political activities with
total candor and faithfulness. And that makes it necessary to describe some
circumstances which may offend Slovak sensitivities. But this cannot be
completely avoided, unless we were to paint a distorted picture or render this
work totally incomprehensible. It should be clear also that often in many cases
there may be sharp differences in opinion. This cautionary note is intended to
serve as a credible evidence that our goal is something other than the tearing
up of old wounds or the endless repetition of old accusations.
We are firmly convinced that the desired establishment of a Central Europe
based on the laws of geopolitics demands that instead of accusations and the
rehashing of the undoubtedly many mistakes of the past which would be
counterproductive in any event, we should seek out each other's hand and --
most importantly -- attempt a reconciliation in our souls. We must be aware of
the fact -- and this can be accomplished only through a conscious educational
effort --that such a reconciliation would serve not only Hungarian or only
Slovak interests which would benefit one side or the other. We must understand
and we must employ every means at our disposal
6
to bring this into public consciousness. Reconciliation is in the utmost
interest of both peoples because we are dealing with the common destiny of
Hungarians and Slovaks and their very survival may depend on it.
Gyula Illyes *7 said of Sandor Petofi *8 in a memorial address on December 30,
1972: "National intolerance, the greatest curse of our century, is becoming
increasingly severe. Instead of seeking a common voice, the various language
communities try to choke each other. The great creative personalities of the
nations have a most important pacifying role in this worldwide quarrel. For
their voices transcend boundaries... Sadly, peace among nations and national
minorities is just as much at stake today as it was then when Petofi attached
his greatest hope to this (the pacifying role of the great creative
personalities). Let us have the courage to continue believing in this, to fight
for this!"
We can regard Janos Esterhazy as one of those "great creative personalities."
His words, valid to this day, illuminate his pacifying role among nations and
national minorities across boundaries:
"Peaceful coexistence among interdependent nations and nationalities in the
Danubian Basin should be established on the basis of equal rights. This is
equally in the interest of Hungarians, Germans, Slovaks and Ruthenians who have
been living here for centuries."
The validity of these words is eternal. It is only necessary -- to quote Gyula
lllyes once again -- that "we have resolute courage to believe in it, to fight
for it."
There could be no more fitting tribute to Janos Esterhazy's memory than to work
for a lasting and peaceful coexistence with the same faith he possessed and
determination he demonstrated.
On the following pages we will attempt to outline the aspirations and struggles
of the Hungarian and Slovak peoples in search of their freedom and
independence. For centuries these aspirations and struggles of the two peoples
followed a parallel track. In the last 200 years, unfortunately they have often
gone in opposite directions. But in the final analysis, from their own point of
view both peoples had the same goal: the Slovaks wanted to remain Slovak, the
Hungarians wanted to remain Hungarian.
As long as the Slovaks' ancestors felt that their aspirations remained secure
within the framework of the Hungarian state, the two peoples were headed in the
same direction, supporting and complementing each other's aspirations. Dr.
Gyula Varsanyi. the outstanding expert in international law who recently passed
away referred to
7
Hungary's "ethnoprotective" role in defending the various elements of the
Slovak people against efforts from different directions to assimilate them.
For various reasons and due to various influences, the aspirations of the two
peoples became separated in the 19th century. That has led to repeated
confrontations between them.
We shall attempt in a new arrangement to describe first the aspirations and
struggles of the Slovak people. In Part Two we will sum up the aspirations and
struggles of the Hungarians. Both parts include events which were of great
importance in the aspirations of both peoples. In general, we will describe
those in one part only, with only a reference and, if need be, additional
material in the other.
8
(1) Highland (Felvidek) is the Hungarian name of former Northern Hungary. which
became Slovakia as part of the Czechoslovak Republic. established in 1920 by
the Treaty of Trianon.
(2) Svatopluk. 9th century Moravian prince. believed to be one of the founders
of the Moravian empire.
(3) Pribina. Slav prince. According to some Crechoslovak historians. he and
princes Mojmir and Rastislav founded a principality along the upper Danube
river in 820.
(4) Thomas 0. Masaryk. first president of the Czechoslovak republic.
(5) Eduard Benes. one of the chief architects of Czechoslovakia.
(6) Father Joseph Tiso, president of the independent Slovak republic during
world War II.
(7) Gyula Illyes. one of the most outstanding Hungarian poets and authors of
the 20th century.
COUNT JANOS ESTERHAZY |